Śvetāmbara

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An icon of Śvetāmbara Jain, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha, at a Jain temple in Mysore
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The Śvetāmbara (/ʃwɛˈtʌmbərə/; also spelled Shwetambara, Shvetambara, Svetambara or Swetambar) is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the Digambara. Śvetāmbara in Sanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to its ascetics' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from the Digambara or "sky-clad" Jains whose ascetic practitioners go nude. Śvetāmbaras do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity.[1]

The Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards Jain nuns, their legends and the texts they consider as important.[2][3][4] Śvetāmbara Jain communities are currently found mainly in Gujarat, Rajasthan and coastal regions of Maharashtra.[5][4] According to Jeffery D. Long, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, about four-fifths of all Jains in India are Śvetāmbaras.[6]

History and lineage[edit]

See also: Pattavali

Śvetāmbaras consider themselves to be the original followers of Mahavira and that the Digambara sect emerged in 82 AD as a result of a rebellion by a monk named Sivabhuti, who was the disciple of Arya Krishnasuri. This account is found in 5th century Śvetāmbara text Avashyak Bhashya written by Jinabhadra. This is also the earliest formal recognition of the schism between the two sects. [7][8][9]

Śvetāmbaras have several pattavalis that mention the historical lineage of their chief monks (acharya) beginning with the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. The most popular of the pattavalis is the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, a canonical scripture of the Śvetāmbaras. According to the lineage mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, Sthulabhadra was, unequivocally, the successor of Bhadrabāhu. Śvetāmbaras also believe that both of them were white-clad monks. These beliefs are completely rejected by the Digambara sect. [10]

To manage the large following of the murtipujaka sect, Gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. Each gaccha has its own pattavali. One of the 84 gacchas was the Upkesa Gaccha. While all other pattavalis (including the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra) trace their lineage to the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira, Upkesa Gaccha's pattavali traces its lineage to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Kesiswami, one of Parshvanatha's chief disciples, Acharya Ratnaprabhasuri, the founder of the Oswal community as well as Acharya Swayamprabhasuri, the founder of the Porwal community belonged to this gaccha. It was in existence until 1930s when it went extinct. [11][12]

Scriptures and literature[edit]

Main article: Jain literature

Śvetāmbara literature can be classified into two major categories — canonical and non-canonical. Canonical scriptures state the Jain cosmology and the Jain philosophy as well as the foundational aspects of understanding Jainism. They also govern the conduct of monks, nuns, as well as the laity. [13] Non-canonical scriptures include, but are not limited to commentaries on canonical scriptures, biographies of the Śalākāpuruṣas (as in Hemachandra's Trisasti-shalakapurusa-caritra), [14] Jain mythology, treatise and extensions of the canonical scriptures, lists of rare and uncommon words and knowledge base and dictionaries for Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, Maharashtri Prakrit, and Sanskrit, devotional hymns (stavan, stuti, sajjhay, or mantra), and miscellaneous scriptures. [15]

Āgamas or Canonical Literature[edit]

The Śvetāmbara canon consists of 45 scriptures, mostly written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. They are considered to be what is left of Mahavira's teachings. Historically, the knowledge of these scriptures was passed down orally in a preceptor-disciple system (guru-shishya parampara). However, the memory of the monks weakened in the 12-year long famine as described in the Kalpa Sūtra. As a result, most of the knowledge of the canonical scriptures was lost. The remaining canon was codified at the Great Council of Vallabhi under leadership of Devardhigani Kshamashramana, which was held at Vallabhi in 454 CE resulting in the 45 scriptures that govern the Śvetāmbara sect's religious practices till date. [16][17]

From a linguistic point of view, Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures are the oldest of all Jain literature. The Acharanga Sutra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, and the Sthananga Sutra of the Śvetāmbara canon are considered to have been created in 5th-4th century BC. [18] Following is a list of the 45 canonical scriptures followed by the Śvetāmbaras: -

  • Twelve Angās (limbs)
  • Twelve Upāṅgas (auxiliary limbs)
    • Uvavāiya-sutta (Sanskrit: Aupapātika-sūtra,'Places of rebirth')
    • Rāya-paseṇaijja or Rāyapaseṇiya (Rāja-praśnīya, 'Questions of the king')
    • Jīvājīvābhigama (Jīvājīvābhigama, 'Classification of animate and inanimate entities')
    • Pannavaṇā (Prajñāpanā, 'Enunciation on topics of philosophy and ethics')
    • Sūriya-pannatti (Sūrya-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the sun')
    • Jambūdvīpa-pannatti (Jambūdvīpa-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the Jambū continent and the Jain universe')
    • Canda-pannatti (Candra-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the moon and the Jain universe')
    • Nirayāvaliyāo or Kappiya (Narakāvalikā, 'Series of stories on characters reborn in hells')
    • Kappāvaḍaṃsiāo (Kalpāvataṃsikāḥ, 'Series of stories on characters reborn in the kalpa heavens')
    • Pupphiāo (Puṣpikāḥ, 'Flowers' refers to one of the stories')
    • Puppha-cūliāo (Puṣpa-cūlikāḥ, 'The nun Puṣpacūlā')
    • Vaṇhi-dasāo (Vṛṣṇi-daśāh, 'Stories on characters from the legendary dynasty known as Andhaka-Vṛṣṇi')
  • Six Chedasūtras (Texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns)
    • Āyāra-dasāo (Sanskrit: Ācāradaśāh, 'Ten [chapters] about monastic conduct', chapter 8 is the famed Kalpa-sūtra.)
    • Bihā Kappa (Bṛhat Kalpa, '[Great] Religious code')
    • Vavahāra (Vyavahāra, 'Procedure')
    • Nisīha (Niśītha, 'Interdictions')
    • Jīya-kappa (Jīta-kalpa, Customary rules), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas
    • Mahā-nisīha (Mahā-niśītha, Large Niśītha), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas
  • Four Mūlasūtras ('Fundamental texts' which are foundational works studied by new monastics)
    • Dasaveyāliya-sutta (Sanskrit: Daśavaikālika-sūtra), this is memorized by all new Jain mendicants
    • Uttarajjhayaṇa-sutta (Uttarādhyayana-sūtra)
    • Āvassaya-sutta (Āvaśyaka-sūtra)
    • Piṇḍa-nijjutti and Ogha-nijjutti (Piṇḍa-niryukti and Ogha-niryukti), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas
  • Two Cūlikasūtras ("appendixes")
    • Nandī-sūtra – discusses the five types of knowledge
    • Anuyogadvāra-sūtra – a technical treatise on analytical methods, discusses Anekantavada
  • Ten Paiṇṇayasūtras ("miscellaneous texts")
    • Cau-saraṇa (Sanskrit: Catuḥśaraṇa, The 'four refuges')
    • Āura-paccakkhāṇa (Ātura-pratyākhyāna, 'Sick man's renunciation')
    • Bhatta-parinnā (Bhakta-parijñā, 'Renunciation of food')
    • Saṃthāraga (Saṃstāraka, 'Straw bed')
    • Tandula-veyāliya (Taṇḍula-vaicārika, 'Reflection on rice grains')
    • Canda-vejjhaya (Candravedhyaka, 'Hitting the mark')
    • Devinda-tthaya (Devendra-stava, 'Praise of the kings of gods')
    • Gaṇi-vijjā (Gaṇi-vidyā, 'A Gaṇi's knowledge')
    • Mahā-paccakkhāṇa (Mahā-pratyākhyāna, 'Great renunciation')
    • Vīra-tthava (Vīra-stava, 'Great renunciation')

The above list makes it 46, but the last angā Driśtivāda is considered to be lost by both the sects. It was this scripture that contained the 14 purvas (14 scriptures containing extensive knowledge) of Jainism.

Non-Canonical Literature[edit]

All texts or pieces of literature written by Śvetāmbara monks, except the ones stated above are considered to be non-canonical in nature. Following are some popular examples. However, the complete list is inexhaustive as the Śvetāmbara sect has always had more monks than the Digambara sect: -

Sub-traditions[edit]

A 1st- to 2nd–century CE water tank relief panel showing two ardhaphalaka Jain monks carrying colapatta cloth on their left hand found in the ruins of Mathura (Brooklyn Museum 87.188.5).[22] This cloth carrying tradition to cover genitalia by ancient Jain monks in principle resembles the beliefs of the Śvetāmbara and now extinct Yapaniya subtradition.[23]
Tirth Pat on display at Prince of Wales museum, Mumbai

Murtipujakas (Idol Worshippers)[edit]

Majority of the Śvetāmbaras are murtipujakas, that is they actively offer devotional puja in temples, worship before the images or idols of Tirthankaras and important Jain demi-gods and demi-goddesses.[24] Historically, this is the oldest sub-tradition of the Śvetāmbaras and all other aniconic sects have emerged in and after the 14th century. [24]

The Śvetāmbara murtipujaka (idol-worshipping) sect is the largest of all sects and sub-sects of Jainism and has the most number of followers as well as monks. To manage the large following, gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. 84 gacchas have come into existence till date and most of them are extinct now. Only 4 survive - Tapa Gaccha, Kharatara Gaccha, Parshvachandra Gaccha, and Achal Gaccha. Of these, Tapa Gaccha is the largest, with the most monks and followers. [11][25]

The murtipujaka sect has had various eminent monks, including, but not limited to Vimalsuri, Hemachandra, Hiravijaya, Devardhigani Kshamashraman, Yashovijaya, Anandghan, Siddhasena, and Manatunga.

Sthanakvasis and Terapanthis (Aniconic)[edit]

The rest are split into various sub-traditions where either Jain temples and halls are built but puja is minor, or where all construction and use of temples, images and idols is actively discouraged and avoided. These sub-traditions began around 14th-century through 18th-century.[24]

A layman who opposed devotional temples, images and idols was Lonka Shah (c. 1476 CE) who is responsible for starting the Sthānakavāsī sub-tradition. Bhikshu was initiated as a Sthānakavāsī monk, but he believed that their teachings were inappropriate. As a result, he started the Terapanth sub-tradition after criticizing the Sthanakvasi sub-tradition's beliefs. [26][27] Early colonial era observers and some early 20th-century Jain writers such as Malvaniya hypothesized that this movement against idol worship may be the impact of Islam on Jainism, but later scholarship states that the sub-traditions arose from an internal dispute and debate on the principle Ahimsa (non-violence).[24][28] The newer sub-traditions only accept 32 of the 45 scriptures of the original Śvetāmbara canon. In the 32 they have accepted, several points have been modified and a major portion of their canon is different from the original canon. [27]

These sub-traditions are not recognized by the original Śvetāmbara sect of the idol-worshippers, who argue that they were created as a result of a grave misinterpretation of canonical scriptures. [29] The murtipujaka Śvetāmbaras do not allow laypersons to read scriptures as a misinterpretation of the canon is considered to be a sin. The later sub-traditions have made their canon openly accessible. Both the newer sub-traditions have various sub-traditions within them that do not agree on several aspects of the canon. [30]

Differences with Digambaras[edit]

Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as:

Śvetāmbaras believe that Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara, taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say is confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jain monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows.[31][32][33] The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations,[34] and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings.[32] However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by Mahavira. The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe Parshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows except Brahmacharya) than Mahavira. However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in the Acharanga Sutra.[35]

  • Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvetāmbara believe the 23rd and 24th tirthankar did indeed marry. According to the Śvetāmbara version, Parshvanāth married Prabhavati,[36] and Mahāvīraswāmi married Yashoda who bore him a daughter named Priyadarshana.[37][38] The two sects also differ on the origin of Trishala, Mahāvīra's mother,[37] as well as the details of Tirthankara's biographies such as how many auspicious dreams their mothers had when they were in the wombs.[39]
  • Digambara believe Rishabha, Vasupujya and Neminatha were the three tirthankaras who reached omniscience while in sitting posture and other tirthankaras were in standing ascetic posture. In contrast, Śvetāmbaras believe it was Rishabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture.[40]
  • Digambara monasticism rules are more rigid.[41]
  • Digambara iconography are plain, Śvetāmbara icons are decorated and colored to be more lifelike.[41]
  • According to Śvetāmbara Jain texts, from Kalpasūtras onwards, its monastic community has had more sadhvis than sadhus (female than male mendicants). In Tapa Gacch of the modern era, the ratio of sadhvis to sadhus (nuns to monks) is about 3.5 to 1.[42] In contrast to Śvetāmbara, the Digambara sect monastic community has been predominantly male.[43]
  • In the Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve his soul's liberation from rebirths through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in the Digambara sect of Jainism.[44][45] The Śvetāmbaras disagree with the Digambaras, believing that women can also achieve liberation from saṃsāra through ascetic practices.[45][46]
  • The Śvetāmbaras state the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female.[47] However, Digambara reject this, and worship Mallinatha as a male.[48]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 45.
  2. ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 53–59, 64–80, 286–287 with footnotes 21 and 32.
  3. ^ Wiley 2009, pp. 83–84. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWiley2009 (help)
  4. ^ a b Jain & Fischer 1978, pp. 1–2, 8–9, xxxiv–xxxv.
  5. ^ Long 2013, pp. 60–61.
  6. ^ Long 2013, p. 20.
  7. ^ Dundas, Paul (2 September 2003). The Jains. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-134-50165-6.
  8. ^ Singhi, Narendra Kumar (1987). Ideal, Ideology & Practice: Studies in Jainism. Printwell Publishers. ISBN 978-81-7044-042-0.
  9. ^ Hastings, James; Selbie, John Alexander (1922). Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Suffering-Zwingli. T. & T. Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-06509-4.
  10. ^ "Jaina Sutras, Part I (SBE22): Lives of the Ginas: List of the Sthaviras". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  11. ^ a b Glasenapp, Helmuth von (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2.
  12. ^ Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research, Vol-19, Issue no.-January-December. pp. 233–242.
  13. ^ "Jaina Sutras, Part I (SBE22): Contents". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  14. ^ a b www.wisdomlib.org (17 September 2017). "Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Caritra". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  15. ^ "The Great Accomplishment of the Past Century ABHIDHAN RAJENDRA KOSH - Jainavenue". 7 April 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  16. ^ Stevenson, Margaret (1915). The Heart of Jainism. London: Oxford University Press. p. 13. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  17. ^ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar (1916). The Beginning of Hindu Culture as World-power (A.D. 300–600). Shanghai: Commercial Press. p. 29. OCLC 613143923. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  18. ^ Jain, Sagarmal (1998). Jain Literature [From earliest time to c. 10th A.D.], Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI. p. 4.
  19. ^ Mahopadhyay Yashovijaya Ji (1958). Gyan Saar.
  20. ^ Jacobi, Hermann. "Vimalsuri's Paumachariyam Part 1". jainqq.org. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  21. ^ Jacobi, Hermann. "Vimalsuri's Paumachariyam Part 2". jainqq.org. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  22. ^ Quintanilla 2007, pp. 174–176.
  23. ^ Jaini & Goldman 2018, pp. 42–45.
  24. ^ a b c d Long 2013, pp. 20–22.
  25. ^ Wiley, Kristi L. (2009). The A to Z of Jainism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6821-2.
  26. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 254.
  27. ^ a b Narendra Singh 2001, p. 5184.
  28. ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 246–249.
  29. ^ Vallely 2002, p. 59.
  30. ^ Shashi 1996, p. 945.
  31. ^ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 211.
  32. ^ a b Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 5.
  33. ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 31–33.
  34. ^ Jaini 2000, pp. 27–28.
  35. ^ "Jaina Sutras, Part I (SBE22): Contents". sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  36. ^ Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 12.
  37. ^ a b Natubhai Shah 2004, pp. 73–74.
  38. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 21.
  39. ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 17.
  40. ^ Umakant P. Shah 1987, pp. 79–80.
  41. ^ a b Dalal 2010a, p. 167.
  42. ^ Cort 2001a, p. 47.
  43. ^ Flügel 2006, pp. 314–331, 353–361.
  44. ^ Long 2013, pp. 36–37.
  45. ^ a b Harvey 2016, pp. 182–183.
  46. ^ Dundas 2002, pp. 55–59.
  47. ^ Vallely 2002, p. 15.
  48. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 56.

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

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